CFB PSY01 An Introduction To Psychiatry
An introductory overview of psychiatry covering its scope, the biopsychosocial model of mental illness, psychiatric history-taking, mental status examination, and classification systems used in diagnosing mental disorders.
An Introduction to Psychiatry
This lecture (CFB PSY01) is the foundation stone of the entire psychiatry clerkship. It establishes why psychiatry matters (burden, prevalence, mortality), what psychiatric disorders are (definitions, psychopathology), how they are classified (DSM-5, ICD-11, categorical vs. dimensional), the historical evolution of the field, and the three pillars of psychiatric management (brain, reaction, social). Understanding this lecture is essential because almost every subsequent lecture—schizophrenia, anxiety, substance abuse, dementia—builds on the concepts introduced here.
Learning Objectives (inferred from lecture structure):
- Appreciate the significance and global burden of mental disorders
- Define mental disorders using DSM-5/ICD-11 criteria
- Understand psychopathology as the foundation of psychiatric assessment
- Know the spectrum and age-of-onset patterns of mental disorders
- Understand classification systems and their limitations
- Recognise the role of biological, psychological, and social management
- Understand stigma and its impact on mental health care
1. Significance & Burden of Mental Disorders
"In 2019, 1 in every 8 people (up to 970 million) globally were suffering from mental disorders (WHO)." [1]
| Disorder | Prevalence | Key Detail |
|---|---|---|
| Depression | ~5% point prevalence; 15–18% lifetime | Most common CMD globally |
| Anxiety disorders | Common (with depression, most common CMD) | COVID-19 pandemic triggered 25% increase [1] |
| Psychotic disorders (incl. schizophrenia) | 2–3% | Classified as severe mental disorders (SMD) |
| ADHD | 3–5% lifetime (age-standardised ~1%) | Most common neurodevelopmental disorder |
| Dementia | ~10% in those ≥70 years | Major geriatric burden |
Why this matters: These numbers tell you that mental disorders are not rare. Every doctor—regardless of specialty—will encounter patients with psychiatric comorbidity. Depression and anxiety alone affect more people than most "medical" conditions you learn about.
Mental disorders ranked 7th leading cause of DALYs, 2nd leading cause of YLDs, and constituted 1/3 of DALYs due to non-communicable diseases (GBD study 2019). [1]
High Yield – DALYs Explained
DALYs (Disability-Adjusted Life Years) = Years of Life Lost (YLL, premature death) + Years Lived with Disability (YLD, morbidity). Mental disorders score high on YLD because they cause prolonged disability, even if mortality is less dramatic than cardiovascular disease. This is why depression is predicted to become the leading cause of disease burden globally by 2030. [1]
| Measure | Depression rank | Anxiety rank | Schizophrenia rank |
|---|---|---|---|
| DALYs (top 25) | 13th | — | — |
| YLDs (top 25) | 2nd | 8th | 20th |
- Economic cost: ~USD 5 trillion in 2019 (e.g. 8% of GDP in high-income North America). [1]
People with mental disorders exhibit 2–3× higher premature mortality risk and life expectancy loss of ~10 years relative to the general population. [1]
This is a critical concept: mental illness kills you physically, not just through suicide. Patients with severe mental disorders (SMD) have higher rates of cardiovascular disease, metabolic syndrome, diabetes, and cancer—AND they are less likely to receive standard treatment for these conditions (treatment inequality).
| Disorder | Years of Potential Life Lost (YPLL) |
|---|---|
| Substance-use disorders | 20.1 years (greatest) |
| Eating disorders | 16.6 years |
| Schizophrenia | 15 years |
| Personality disorders | 15 years |
Pooled life expectancy across mental disorders: 64 years [1]. This reduced life expectancy is transdiagnostic (cuts across all diagnostic categories), suggesting shared pathways—metabolic side effects of medications, unhealthy lifestyle, poor access to healthcare, self-neglect.
Over 700,000 people die by suicide every year globally. Around 90% of people who die by suicide have some form of mental disorder. [1]
| Disorder | Lifetime Suicide Rate | Suicide Attempt Rate |
|---|---|---|
| Depression | 4–5% | 21–40% |
| Bipolar disorder | Estimated even higher than depression | 19–50% |
| Schizophrenia | ~5% | — |
| Alcohol/substance use disorders | Markedly increased | Markedly increased |
| Personality disorders (esp. Borderline PD) | Markedly increased | Markedly increased |
- Suicide is the 4th leading cause of death in 15–29-year-olds. [1]
Why this matters for every doctor: Suicide risk assessment is a core clinical skill. The fact that ~90% of suicide completers have a mental disorder means that detecting and treating mental illness is, quite literally, life-saving.
62.5% of people with mental disorders had age at onset < 25 years. [1]
This tells us that mental illness is predominantly a disease of the young. Early intervention matters because the brain is still developing, and untreated illness during this period leads to worse long-term outcomes.
| Peak Age of Onset | Disorders |
|---|---|
| Late adolescence / early adulthood (17–22 years) | Eating disorders, OCD, substance use disorders |
| The twenties (25–27 years) | Schizophrenia, personality disorders, panic disorder, alcohol use disorder |
| The thirties (30–35 years) | Depression, bipolar disorder, GAD, PTSD |
Exam Trap
Students often assume schizophrenia peaks in the teens. It actually peaks in the mid-twenties (25–27). Eating disorders and OCD peak earlier (17–22). Depression peaks later than you'd expect (30–35). Know these age windows—they appear in MCQs asking "most likely diagnosis" for a given age group.
3. Psychopathology: The Language of Psychiatry
Psychopathology = the study of abnormal states of mind. [1]
Descriptive psychopathology (phenomenology) = objective description of abnormal states of mind, avoiding preconceived ideas or theories, limited to the description of conscious experiences & observable behaviours. [1]
Think of it this way: In medicine, you learn to describe a heart murmur—its timing, location, character. In psychiatry, psychopathology is how you describe abnormal mental experiences with the same precision. It was systematised by Karl Jaspers in his 1913 General Psychopathology. [1]
| Distinction | Explanation |
|---|---|
| Subjective vs. Objective | Symptoms = reported from inside (subjective); Signs = observed externally (objective) |
| Form vs. Content | Form = the type of experience (e.g. a delusion); Content = what the experience is about (e.g. persecutory theme) |
| Primary vs. Secondary | Primary = arising without apparent cause (e.g. primary delusion in schizophrenia); Secondary = understandable in context (e.g. persecutory ideas secondary to auditory hallucinations) |
Types of psychopathology include disturbances of: [1]
| Domain | Examples |
|---|---|
| Mood / emotions | Nature, variation, congruity with thoughts/circumstances |
| Perception | Hallucinations, illusions |
| Thought content | Delusions, obsessions, overvalued ideas |
| Thinking process | Form of thought (e.g. loosening of associations), stream of thought (e.g. flight of ideas, poverty of thought) |
| Motor signs | Catatonia |
| Insight | Awareness of symptoms, illness, need for treatment |
| Cognitive functions & consciousness | Disorientation, memory impairment, clouding of consciousness |
| Experience of self / body image | Depersonalisation, derealisation, distorted body image (e.g. eating disorders), awareness of identity boundaries |
The lecture contrasts how symptoms are assessed in physical medicine versus psychiatry. [1]
In physical disease: Patient perceives bodily dysfunction → communicates symptom → clinician can verify with physical exam and investigation (objective confirmation available).
In psychiatric illness: The "organ of interest" (the mind/brain) is also the instrument of communication. The patient's mind is both the source of illness AND the reporter of illness. There is no blood test for delusions. Therefore, the Mental State Examination (MSE) is the psychiatric equivalent of the physical exam. [1] [2]
Key Concept
In psychiatry, the clinician's primary investigative tool is the clinical interview and MSE. This is why phenomenological precision—describing exactly what the patient is experiencing—is paramount.
4. What Are Mental Disorders? – Definition
"A mental disorder is characterised by a clinically significant disturbance in an individual's cognition, emotional regulation, or behaviour. It is usually associated with distress or impairment in important areas of functioning." (WHO) [1]
A mental disorder is: [1]
- A syndrome characterised by clinically significant disturbance in cognition, emotion regulation, or behaviour
- Reflecting a dysfunction in psychological, biological, or developmental processes underlying mental functioning
- Resulting in significant distress (e.g. painful symptom) or disability in important areas of functioning (e.g. occupational, social)
- Must NOT be merely an expected response to common stressors and losses (e.g. grief after losing a loved one)
- Must NOT be a culturally sanctioned response to a particular event (e.g. trance states in religious rituals)
- Socially deviant behaviour and conflicts primarily between individual and society are NOT mental disorders (e.g. political dissidence)
Exam Trap: What is NOT a Mental Disorder
Grief, culturally normative trance states, and social deviance by themselves do not constitute mental disorders under DSM-5. This is frequently tested as a negative discriminator in MCQs. However, if grief becomes pathologically prolonged (Prolonged Grief Disorder in DSM-5-TR/ICD-11) with clinically significant impairment, it CAN cross the threshold.
Eric Kandel: "All mental processes are brain processes, and therefore all disorders of mental functioning are biological diseases." [1]
Thomas Insel: "Mental illnesses are no different from heart disease, diabetes, or other chronic illness... the organ of interest is the brain instead of the heart or pancreas." [1]
The lecture presents the perspective that mental disorders are "syndromes of disrupted neural, cognitive, and behavioural systems" (aligned with the NIMH Research Domain Criteria / RDoC framework). [1]
However, the lecture explicitly cautions: "Biological is important, but environmental, behavioural and social factors should not be overlooked." [1] The brain continually rewires itself in response to learning and life events → gene × environment interaction is key. This is the biopsychosocial model in action.
The lecture presents a lifespan framework: [1]
| Life Stage | Common Disorders |
|---|---|
| Child & Adolescent | ADHD, Autism, Learning Disability with behavioural problems, ODD & Conduct disorder |
| Adults | Schizophrenia & other psychoses, Depression & Bipolar disorder, Anxiety & stress-related disorders, Substance & alcohol abuse, Personality disorders |
| Old Age | Dementia, Mood disorders, Psychotic disorders, Other late-onset conditions |
Note: Eating disorders, impulse-control disorders, and other conditions can occur at any time in lifespan. [1]
6. Classification of Mental Disorders
Categorical approach: Discrete diagnostic categories based on symptom pattern, course, and outcome. [1] [3] Dimensional approach: Disorders exist on spectra/dimensions (e.g. psychosis, mood, negative symptoms, cognition, motor, disorganisation, chronicity). [1]
| Feature | Categorical | Dimensional |
|---|---|---|
| Basis | Distinct diagnoses (present/absent) | Spectrum (severity along dimensions) |
| Advantages | Clinical utility, clear communication, treatment guidelines | Captures overlap, more biologically valid |
| Disadvantages | Arbitrary cut-offs, comorbidity artefacts, poor validity | Complex, less practical in clinical settings |
| Example | Schizophrenia vs. Bipolar disorder (separate boxes) | Both share psychosis dimension but differ on mood, negative symptom dimensions |
The lecture illustrates this with two key diagrams: [1]
- Categorical: Separate boxes for Schizophrenia, Bipolar, Schizoaffective, Delusional disorder, Brief Psychotic Disorder / ATPD, Depression, OCD, Schizophreniform disorder
- Dimensional: Overlapping dimensions (psychosis, mood, negative, cognition, motor, disorganisation, chronicity) with different disorders mapping to different combinations
Organic / substance-induced > Psychoses > Mood disorders > Anxiety disorders [1]
Why this hierarchy exists: Always rule out the "higher" (more serious/organic) cause before attributing symptoms to a "lower" functional diagnosis. A patient with psychosis and anxiety should be diagnosed with the psychotic disorder, not just an anxiety disorder—unless there are clearly separate conditions.
Both are operational criteria systems → increase diagnostic reliability (but not necessarily improved validity). [1]
| DSM-5 (APA) | ICD-11 (WHO) |
|---|---|
| Neurodevelopmental disorders | Neurodevelopmental disorders |
| Schizophrenia spectrum & other psychotic disorders | Schizophrenia or other primary psychotic disorders |
| Bipolar disorder | Mood disorders (bipolar + depressive combined) |
| Depressive disorders | (see above) |
| Anxiety disorders | Anxiety and fear-related disorders |
| OCD and related disorders | OCD and related disorders |
| Trauma- and stress-related disorders | Disorders specifically associated with stress |
| Dissociative disorders | Dissociative disorders |
| Somatic symptom disorders | Disorders of bodily distress and bodily experiences |
| Feeding and eating disorders | Feeding and eating disorders |
| Disruptive, impulse-control and conduct disorders | Disruptive and dissocial disorders / Impulse control disorders |
| Substance use and addictive disorders | Disorders due to substance use and addictive disorders |
| Neurocognitive disorders | Neurocognitive disorders |
| Personality disorders | Personality disorders |
Exam Intelligence – Classification SAQ
Past paper Q (2021 SAQ Q3): "Name TWO psychiatric classification systems." → Answer: DSM-5 and ICD-11 (or ICD-10). Also asked: "List FOUR reasons to classify mental disorders" → (1) Brings order to diversity of phenomena, (2) Identifies groups of patients with similar features for suitable treatment, (3) Predicts likely outcome/prognosis, (4) Provides common language for communication between professionals, patients, and researchers. [1] [3] [4]
Psychiatric comorbidity is common. [1]
This means patients frequently meet criteria for more than one disorder simultaneously (e.g. depression + anxiety, schizophrenia + substance use). This challenges the categorical approach and supports dimensional thinking.
From senior notes: [3]
- Labelling and stigmatisation (different labels suggest different severities)
- Diagnostic terms can mean different things to different people
- Arbitrary cut-offs between normal and abnormal (e.g. MDD must last ≥2 weeks—why not 13 days?)
- Patients don't fit neatly into categories (hence combined diagnoses like schizoaffective disorder)
- Distracts from understanding individual patients' unique problems
| Psychosis | Neurosis |
|---|---|
| Inability to distinguish subjective experience from reality (hallucinations/delusions) | Retained ability to distinguish subjective from reality |
| More severe, outside range of normal experience | Milder, closer to normal experience |
| Examples: Schizophrenia, mania, delirium | Examples: Anxiety, non-psychotic depression |
This distinction is considered "vague and obsolete" now but remains conceptually useful and still appears in exams. [3]
The lecture walks through the evolution of psychiatry. While exam questions rarely test names directly, understanding the intellectual lineage helps you appreciate why psychiatry is practised the way it is today.
| Figure | Contribution |
|---|---|
| Philippe Pinel | Founder of modern psychiatry; humane approach to asylum care; "insanity was a disease and the patient… remained a human being" [1] |
| Jean-Étienne Dominique Esquirol | Psychiatry as a medical profession; advocated "social and community psychiatry" [1] |
| Wilhelm Griesinger | First biological psychiatry; "patients with mental illness are really individuals with illness of the nerves and brain" [1] |
| Carl Wernicke | Wernicke area; Wernicke encephalopathy; psychosis classification [1] |
| Paul Flechsig | Cerebral localisation [1] |
| Theodor Meynert | Anatomical origins in the brain of mental disorders [1] |
| Karl Ludwig Kahlbaum (& Hecker) | Introduced terms: dysthymia, cyclothymia, catatonia, paraphrenia, hebephrenia; influenced Kraepelin [1] |
| Emil Kraepelin | Central figure in modern psychiatry; classified psychoses into "dementia praecox" and "manic-depressive insanity"; detailed longitudinal course description; heavily influenced modern classification [1] |
| Eugen Bleuler | Coined "a group of schizophrenias"; described fundamental (negative: loss of association, affect blunting) and accessory (positive) symptoms [1] |
| Sigmund Freud | Psychoanalysis; Ego, Id, Super-ego; defence mechanisms; psychotherapy; neurosis/anxiety [1] |
| Karl Jaspers | Systematised descriptive psychopathology (1913) [1] |
| Nathan S. Kline | Father of psychopharmacology; first antipsychotic and antidepressant in the 1950s [1] |
Kraepelin vs. Bleuler: Know the Difference
Kraepelin focused on course and outcome (dementia praecox = early dementia, poor prognosis). Bleuler challenged the notion that outcome was uniformly poor and introduced the concept of "schizophrenia" (split mind), emphasising fundamental symptoms (the 4 A's: Affect blunting, Associative loosening, Ambivalence, Autism) over accessory symptoms (hallucinations, delusions). This debate between prognosis-based vs. symptom-based classification still echoes today.
8. The Role of a Psychiatrist in Clinical Management
The three pillars: [1]
- Managing the Brain
- Managing the Reaction to Illness
- Managing the External / Social Factors
This is the biopsychosocial model made practical.
Psychopharmacology: [1]
| Neurotransmitter System | Drug Class | Indication |
|---|---|---|
| Dopaminergic (D2 blockade) | Antipsychotics | Schizophrenia, psychosis |
| Serotonergic / Noradrenergic | SSRI, SNRI, TCA (antidepressants) | Depression, anxiety |
| Dopamine / Noradrenergic | Stimulants (methylphenidate) | ADHD |
| GABA | Benzodiazepines, hypnotics | Anxiety, insomnia (short-term) |
| Acetylcholine | Cholinesterase inhibitors | Alzheimer's disease |
| Glutamate | Memantine | Moderate-severe dementia |
Other biological interventions: [1]
- Neurogenesis: Exercise intervention
- Neuroprotection: Lifestyle modification
- Invasive brain stimulation: ECT; Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS)
- Non-invasive brain stimulation (NIBS): TMS, tDCS, TPS
Psychological interventions (psychotherapy): [1]
- CBT (Cognitive Behavioural Therapy)
- Motivational interviewing
- Interpersonal therapy
- Adherence therapy
Targets of psychological intervention: [1]
- Hope, insight instillation
- Thinking habit / cognitive distortion
- Mindfulness
- Relationships
- Illness / explanatory models
- Self-stigma
- Enduring personality problems
- Residual positive symptoms
- Dependence / addictive behaviour
Social interventions include: [1]
- Treatment environment (therapeutic relationship, case management, treatment settings)
- Family dynamics (high expressed emotion, parenting style, caregiver burden)
- Social (social support, stigma/discrimination reduction)
- Culture (esp. ethnic minorities)
- Work (job opportunities, rehabilitation, occupational therapy, supported employment)
- Physical/living environment (housing support, supervised settings, halfway houses)
High Expressed Emotion (HEE)
High expressed emotion in families (criticism, hostility, emotional over-involvement) is a well-established predictor of relapse in schizophrenia. Family psychoeducation to reduce HEE is a key social intervention.
The lecture lists core competencies: [1]
- Empathic dialogue & understanding
- Complex clinical decision and uncertainty handling
- Detective-like observation
- Personalised management
- Neuroscience & psychopharmacotherapy
- Psychotherapeutic skills
- Holistic care
"High level of stigma attached to mental disorders" [1]
Types of Stigma
| Type | Definition |
|---|---|
| Self-stigma | Patients internalise public negative stereotypes against themselves |
| Affiliate stigma | Attribution of negative stereotypes/prejudice/discrimination to family members of patients |
| Public stigma | Negative stereotypes, prejudice & discrimination by society towards patients |
| Institutional stigma | Policies and practices that disadvantage the stigmatised group (intentionally or unintentionally) |
Stigmatisation is particularly serious towards SMD (esp. schizophrenia): negative stereotypes include being dangerous, violent, unpredictable, unable to recover. [1]
Significant implications: stigma is a major barrier for help-seeking and receipt of optimal treatment. [1]
Clinical Relevance of Stigma
As a doctor, you must be aware of your own potential biases. Patients may delay seeking help for years due to stigma. Using person-first language, providing psychoeducation, and normalising help-seeking are all active anti-stigma strategies.
12. Connections to Related Lectures
- The MSE is the practical application of psychopathology concepts from this lecture
- MSE domains map directly to the psychopathology categories listed here (mood, perception, thought, insight, cognition, etc.)
- Key point from Seminar 1: "Objectives of psychiatric interview = diagnosis & management"; "MSE is analogous to P/E and usually consistent with HPC" [2]
- Provides detailed elaboration of each psychopathology domain introduced in this lecture
- Framework: conceptual psychopathology → specific symptom descriptions
- Expands on DSM-5 vs. ICD-11 differences
- Operational criteria and reliability vs. validity in psychiatric diagnosis
- Builds on the "gene × environment interaction" concept introduced here
- Biological, psychological, and social aetiological factors
- 2021 SAQ Q3: Classification systems, reasons for classification, differential diagnoses for low mood and anxiety [4]
- 2020 MCQ Q24: Depression mimicking dementia (pseudodementia) [8]
- 2020 MCQ Q22: Asperger disorder in a child [8]
- 2024 MCQ Q14: Postpartum depression vs. puerperal blues vs. puerperal psychosis [9]
13. Likely Exam Questions
-
Which of the following is the leading cause of YLDs globally?
- A. Ischaemic heart disease B. Depression C. Low back pain D. Schizophrenia
- Answer: B. Depression ranked 2nd leading cause of YLDs; some sources list it as the single leading cause of disability. [1]
-
Which mental disorder is associated with the greatest years of potential life lost (YPLL)?
- A. Schizophrenia B. Eating disorders C. Substance-use disorders D. Personality disorders
- Answer: C. Substance-use disorders (20.1 years). [1]
-
A 26-year-old man develops social withdrawal, auditory hallucinations, and flat affect. His symptoms are most consistent with which disorder based on typical peak age of onset?
- A. PTSD B. Schizophrenia C. GAD D. Depression
- Answer: B. Schizophrenia peaks at 25–27 years. [1]
-
Define a mental disorder according to DSM-5. (4 marks)
- Syndrome with clinically significant disturbance in cognition, emotion regulation, or behaviour (1 mark)
- Reflects dysfunction in psychological, biological, or developmental processes (1 mark)
- Results in significant distress or disability in functioning (1 mark)
- Not merely an expected response to stressors/losses, not culturally sanctioned, not social deviance (1 mark)
-
List FOUR reasons to classify mental disorders. (4 marks)
- Bring order to diversity of phenomena
- Identify groups with similar features for suitable treatment
- Predict likely outcome/prognosis
- Facilitate communication between professionals, patients, and researchers
-
Name THREE types of stigma in mental disorders. (3 marks)
- Self-stigma, public stigma, institutional stigma (or affiliate stigma)
-
List THREE pillars of psychiatric management with one example each. (6 marks)
- Brain: antipsychotics for schizophrenia
- Reaction to illness: CBT for depression
- Social: family psychoeducation to reduce high expressed emotion
High Yield Summary
Key takeaways from CFB PSY01:
-
Burden: 1 in 8 people affected; mental disorders = 7th DALYs, 2nd YLDs; depression predicted to be #1 disease burden by 2030.
-
Premature mortality: 2–3× higher risk; 10-year life expectancy loss; transdiagnostic phenomenon. Substance-use disorders have greatest YPLL (20.1 years).
-
Suicide: 700,000+ deaths/year globally; 90% have a mental disorder; 4th leading cause of death in 15–29 year-olds.
-
Age of onset: 62.5% onset < 25 years. Eating disorders/OCD peak 17–22; schizophrenia 25–27; depression 30–35.
-
Definition (DSM-5): Clinically significant disturbance in cognition/emotion/behaviour + dysfunction + distress/disability + NOT normal stress response/culturally sanctioned/social deviance.
-
Classification: DSM-5 and ICD-11; categorical vs. dimensional; diagnostic hierarchy (organic > psychosis > mood > anxiety).
-
Psychopathology: Descriptive (phenomenology); domains = mood, perception, thought content, thinking process, motor, insight, cognition, self-experience.
-
Management = Biopsychosocial: Brain (pharmacology, ECT, NIBS) + Reaction (CBT, psychotherapy) + Social (family, work, housing, anti-stigma).
-
Stigma: Self, affiliate, public, institutional → major barrier to help-seeking.
-
Key figures: Pinel (humane care), Kraepelin (dementia praecox vs. manic-depressive), Bleuler (schizophrenia), Jaspers (psychopathology), Freud (psychoanalysis), Kline (psychopharmacology).
Active Recall - Introduction to Psychiatry
[1] Lecture slides: CFB (PSY01) An introduction to Psychiatry.pdf [2] Lecture slides: Seminar 1 - Psychiatric History Taking and Mental State Examination - Dr SE Chua_20250825.pdf [3] Senior notes: Ryan Ho Psychiatry.pdf (Chapter 1.1 Classification in Psychiatry) [4] Past papers: 2021 Fourth Summative SAQ.pdf (Question 3) [5] Lecture slides: Seminar 2 - Psychopathology - Dr Simon SY Lui_1_9_2025.pdf [6] Lecture slides: CFB (PSY02) Classification and Diagnosis of Psychiatric Illness.pdf [7] Lecture slides: CFB (PSY04) Aetiology of Psychiatric Disorders.pdf [8] Past papers: 2020 Fourth Summative Assessment MCQ paper.pdf (Questions 22, 24) [9] Past papers: 2024 Fourth Summative MCQ.pdf (Question 14)
CFB PSY04 Aetiology Of Psychiatric Disorders
The aetiology of psychiatric disorders encompasses the interplay of genetic, neurobiological, psychological, and sociocultural factors that contribute to the development and manifestation of mental illness.
CFB MED05 Cardiovascular (i) Physical Examination (history Taking)
Cardiovascular history taking is the systematic collection of a patient's symptoms, risk factors, and relevant medical background—including chest pain, dyspnea, palpitations, syncope, and peripheral edema—to guide the clinical assessment of heart and vascular disease.